Methods and systems for treating cell proliferation disorders

ABSTRACT

Methods for the treatment of a cell proliferation disorder in a subject, involving:
         (1) administering to the subject at least one activatable pharmaceutical agent that is capable of effecting a predetermined cellular change when activated, either alone or in combination with at least one energy modulation agent; and   (2) applying an initiation energy from an initiation energy source to the subject,   wherein the applying activates the activatable agent in situ,   thus causing the predetermined cellular change to occur, wherein the predetermined cellular change treats the cell proliferation disorder, preferably by causing an increase or decrease in rate of cell proliferation,   and a kit for performing the method, a computer implemented system for performing the method, a pharmaceutical composition useful in the method and a method for causing an autovaccine effect in a subject using the method.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a Divisional of U.S. application Ser. No.14/450,756, filed on Aug. 4, 2014, which is a Continuation of U.S.application Ser. No. 11/935,655, filed Nov. 6, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No.9,358,292, issued Jun. 7, 2016, and claims priority from ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 60/910,663, filed Apr. 8, 2007, entitled “METHOD OFTREATING CELL PROLIFERATION DISORDERS,” the contents of which are herebyincorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Field of Invention

The present invention relates to methods and systems for treating cellproliferation disorders, that provide better distinction between normal,healthy cells and those cells suffering a cell proliferation disorder(hereafter “target cells”) and preferably that can be performed usingnon-invasive or minimally invasive techniques.

Discussion of the Background

Cell Proliferation Disorders

There are several types of cell proliferation disorders. Exemplary cellproliferation disorders may include, but are not limited to, cancer,bacterial infection, immune rejection response of organ transplant,solid tumors, viral infection, autoimmune disorders (such as arthritis,lupus, inflammatory bowel disease, Sjogrens syndrome, multiplesclerosis) or a combination thereof, as well as aplastic conditionswherein cell proliferation is low relative to healthy cells, such asaplastic anemia. Of these, cancer is perhaps the most well known. Theterm “cancer” generally refers to a diverse class of diseases that arecommonly characterized by an abnormal proliferation of the diseasedcells. A unifying thread in all known types of cancer is the acquisitionof abnormalities in the genetic material of the cancer cell and itsprogeny. Once a cell becomes cancerous, it will proliferate withoutrespect to normal limits, invading and destroying adjacent tissues, andmay even spread to distant anatomic sites through a process calledmetastasis. These life-threatening, malignant properties of cancersdifferentiate them from benign tumors, which are self-limited in theirgrowth and do not invade or metastasize.

The impact of cancer on society cannot be overstated. The disease mayaffect people at all ages, with a risk factor that significantlyincreases with a person's age. It has been one of the principal causesof death in developed countries and, as our population continues to age,it is expected to be an even greater threat to our society and economy.Therefore, finding cures and effective treatments for cancer has been,and remains, a priority within the biomedical research community.

Treatment Methods

Existing treatments for cell proliferation disorders such as cancerinclude surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy,monoclonal antibody therapy, and several other lesser known methods. Thechoice of therapy usually depends on the location and severity of thedisorder, the stage of the disease, as well as the patient's response tothe treatment.

While some treatments may only seek to manage and alleviate symptoms ofthe disorder, the ultimate goal of any effective therapy is the completeremoval or cure of all disordered cells without damage to the rest ofthe body. With cancer, although surgery may sometimes accomplish thisgoal, the propensity of cancer cells to invade adjacent tissue or tospread to distant sites by microscopic metastasis often limits theeffectiveness of this option. Similarly, the effectiveness of currentchemotherapy is often limited by toxicity to other tissues in the body.Radiation therapy suffers from similar shortcomings as otheraforementioned treatment methods. Most of these cancer treatmentmethods, including radiation therapy, are known to cause damage to DNA,which if not repaired during a critical stage in mitosis, the splittingof the cell during cell proliferation, leads to a programmed cell death,i.e. apoptosis. Further, radiation tends to damage healthy cells, aswell as malignant tumor cells.

A number of patents describe ex vivo treatment of bodily fluids, forexample blood. Blood is obtained from a patient, treated with aphotosensitive agent, exposed to UV radiation, and reinjected to thepatient (i.e. extracorporeal photopheresis). Alternatively, a patientcan be treated in vivo with a photosensitive agent followed by thewithdrawal of a sample from the patient, treatment with UV radiation invitro (ex vivo), and reinjecting the patient with the treated sample.This method is known for producing an autovaccine. A method of treatinga patient with a photosensitive agent, exposing the patient to an energysource and generating an autovaccine effect wherein all steps areconducted in vivo has not been described. See WO 03/049801, U.S. Pat.No. 6,569,467; U.S. Pat. No. 6,204,058; U.S. Pat. No. 5,980,954; U.S.Pat. No. 6,669,965; U.S. Pat. No. 4,838,852; U.S. Pat. No. 7,045, 124,and U.S. Pat. No. 6,849,058. Moreover, the side effects ofextracorporeal photopheresis are well known and include nausea,vomiting, cutaneous erythema, hypersensitivity to sunlight, andsecondary hematologic malignancy. Researchers are attempting to usephotopheresis in experimental treatments for patients with cardiac,pulmonary and renal allograft rejection; autoimmune diseases, andulcerative colitis.

A survey of known treatment methods reveals that these methods tend toface a primary difficulty of differentiating between normal cells andtarget cells when delivering treatment, often due to the production ofsinglet oxygen which is known to be non-selective in its attack ofcells, as well as the need to perform the processes ex vivo, or throughhighly invasive procedures, such as surgical procedures in order toreach tissues more than a few centimeters deep within the subject.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,829,448 describes simultaneous two photon excitation ofphoto-agents using irradiation with low energy photons such as infraredor near infrared light (NRI). A single photon and simultaneous twophoton excitation is compared for psoralen derivatives, wherein cellsare treated with the photo agent and are irradiated with NRI or UVradiation. The patent suggests that treating with a low energyirradiation is advantageous because it is absorbed and scattered to alesser extent than UV radiation. However, the use of NRI or UV radiationis known to penetrate tissue to only a depth of a few centimeters. Thusany treatment deep within the subject would necessarily require the useof ex vivo methods or highly invasive techniques to allow theirradiation source to reach the tissue of interest.

Chen et al., J. Nanosci. and Nanotech., 6:1159-1166 (2006); Kim et al.,JACS, 129:2669-2675 (2007); U.S. 2002/0127224; and U.S. Pat. No.4,979,935 each describe methods for treatment using various types ofenergy activation of agents within a subject. However, each suffers fromthe drawback that the treatment is dependent on the production ofsinglet oxygen to produce the desired effect on the tissue beingtreated, and is thus largely indiscriminate in affecting both healthycells and the diseased tissue desired to be treated.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,908,591 discloses methods for sterilizing tissue withirradiation to reduce the level of one or more active biologicalcontaminants or pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, yeasts, molds,fungi, spores, prions or similar agents responsible, alone or incombination, for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies and/or singleor multicellular parasites, such that the tissue may subsequently beused in transplantation to replace diseased and/or otherwise defectivetissue in an animal. The method may include the use of a sensitizer suchas psoralen, a psoralen-derivative or other photosensitizer in order toimprove the effectiveness of the irradiation or to reduce the exposurenecessary to sterilize the tissue. However, the method is not suitablefor treating a patient and does not teach any mechanisms for stimulatingthe photosensitizers, indirectly.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,508 discloses antiviral applications for psoralensand other photoactivatable molecules. It teaches a method forinactivating viral and bacterial contaminants from a biologicalsolution. The method includes mixing blood with a photosensitizer and ablocking agent and irradiating the mixture to stimulate thephotosensitizer, inactivating substantially all of the contaminants inthe blood, without destroying the red blood cells. The blocking agentprevents or reduces deleterious side reactions of the photosensitizer,which would occur if not in the presence of the blocking agent. The modeof action of the blocking agent is not predominantly in the quenching ofany reactive oxygen species, according to the reference.

Also, U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,508 suggests that halogenated photosensitizersand blocking agents might be suitable for replacing 8-methoxypsoralen(8-MOP) in photophoresis and in treatment of certain proliferativecancers, especially solid localized tumors accessible via a fiber opticlight device or superficial skin cancers. However, the reference failsto address any specific molecules for use in treating lymphomas or anyother cancer. Instead, the reference suggests a process of photophoresisfor antiviral treatments of raw blood and plasma.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,508 teaches away from 8-MOP and4′-aminomethyl-4,5′,8-trimethylpsoralen (AMT) and many otherphotoactivatable molecules, which are taught to have certaindisadvantages. Fluorescing photosensitizers are said to be preferred,but the reference does not teach how to select a system of fluorescentstimulation or photoactivation using fluorescent photosensitizers.Instead, the fluorescing photosensitizer is limited to the intercalatorthat is binding to the DNA. The reference suggests that fluorescenceindicates that such an intercalator is less likely to stimulate oxygenradicals. Thus, the reference fails to disclose any mechanism ofphotoactivation of an intercalator other than by direct photoactivationby UV light, although use of a UV light probe or X-rays is suggested forpenetrating deeper into tissues. No examples are provided for the use ofa UV light probe or for use of X-rays. No example of any stimulation byX-ray radiation is taught.

Psoralens and Related Compounds

U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,508 further teaches that psoralens are naturallyoccurring compounds which have been used therapeutically for millenniain Asia and Africa. The action of psoralens and light has been used totreat vitiligo and psoriasis (PUVA therapy; Psoralen Ultra Violet A).Psoralen is capable of binding to nucleic acid double helices byintercalation between base pairs; adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine(DNA) or uracil (RNA). Upon sequential absorption of two UV-A photons,psoralen in its excited state reacts with a thymine or uracil doublebond and covalently attaches to both strands of a nucleic acid helix.The crosslinking reaction appears to be specific for a thymine (DNA) ora uracil (RNA) base. Binding proceeds only if psoralen is intercalatedin a site containing thymine or uracil, but an initial photoadduct mustabsorb a second UVA photon to react with a second thymine or uracil onthe opposing strand of the double helix in order to crosslink each ofthe two strands of the double helix, as shown below. This is asequential absorption of two single photons as shown, as opposed tosimultaneous absorption of two or more photons.

In addition, the reference teaches that 8-MOP is unsuitable for use asan antiviral, because it damages both cells and viruses. Lethal damageto a cell or virus occurs when the psoralen is intercalated into anucleic acid duplex in sites containing two thymines (or uracils) onopposing strands but only when it sequentially absorbs 2 UVA photons andthymines (or uracils) are present. U.S. Pat. No. 4,748,120 of Wiesehanis an example of the use of certain substituted psoralens by aphotochemical decontamination process for the treatment of blood orblood products.

Additives, such as antioxidants are sometimes used with psoralens, suchas 8-MOP, AMT and I-IMT, to scavenge singlet oxygen and other highlyreactive oxygen species formed during photoactivation of the psoralens.It is well known that UV activation creates such reactive oxygenspecies, which are capable of seriously damaging otherwise healthycells. Much of the viral deactivation may be the result of thesereactive oxygen species rather than any effect of photoactivation ofpsoralens. Regardless, it is believed that no auto vaccine effect hasbeen observed.

The best known photoactivatable compounds are derivatives of psoralen orcoumarin, which are nucleic acid intercalators. The use of psoralen andcoumarin photosensitizers can give rise to alternative chemical pathwaysfor dissipation of the excited state that are either not beneficial tothe goal of viral inactivation, or that are actually detrimental to theprocess. For psoralens and coumarins, this chemical pathway is likely tolead to the formation of a variety of ring-opened species, such as shownbelow for coumarin:

Research in this field over-simplifies mechanisms involved in thephotoactivating mechanism and formation of highly reactive oxygenspecies, such as singlet oxygen. Both may lead to inactivating damage oftumor cells, viruses and healthy cells. However, neither, alone orcombined, lead to an auto vaccine effect. This requires an activation ofthe body's own immune system to identify a malignant cell or virus asthreat and to create an immune response capable of lasting cytotoxiceffects directed to that threat. It is believed, without being limitingin any way, that photoactivation and the resulting apoptosis ofmalignant cells that occurs in extracorporeal photophoresis causes theactivation of an immune response with cytotoxic effects on untreatedmalignant cells. While the complexity of the immune response andcytotoxid effects is fully appreciated by researchers, a therapy thatharnesses the system to successfully stimulate an auto vaccine effectagainst a targeted, malignant cell has been elusive, except forextracorporeal photophoresis for treating lymphoma.

Midden (W. R. Midden, Psoralen DNA photobiology, Vol I1 (ed. F. P.Gaspalloco) CRC press, pp. 1. (1988) has presented evidence thatpsoralens photoreact with unsaturated lipids and photoreact withmolecular oxygen to produce active oxygen species such as superoxide andsinglet oxygen that cause lethal damage to membranes. U.S. Pat. No.6,235,508 teaches that 8-MOP and AMT are unacceptable photosensitizers,because each indiscriminately damages both cells and viruses. Studies ofthe effects of cationic side chains on furocoumarins as photosensitizersare reviewed in Psoralen DNA Photobiology, Vol. I, ed. F. Gaspano, CRCPress, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla., Chapter 2. U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,508 gleansthe following from this review: most of the amino compounds had a muchlower ability to both bind and form crosslinks to DNA compared to 8-MOP,suggesting that the primary amino functionality is the preferred ionicspecies for both photobinding and crosslinking.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,216,176 of Heindel discloses a large number of psoralensand coumarins that have some effectiveness as photoactivated inhibitorsof epidermal growth factor. Halogens and amines are included among thevast functionalities that could be included in the psoralen/coumarinbackbone. This reference is incorporated herein by reference.

U. S. Pat. No. 5,984,887 discloses using extracorporeal photophoresiswith 8-MOP to treat blood infected with CMV. The treated cells as wellas killed and/or attenuated virus, peptides, native subunits of thevirus itself (which are released upon cell break-up and/or shed into theblood) and/or pathogenic noninfectious viruses are then used to generatean immune response against the virus, which was not present prior to thetreatment.

Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a treatment modality that uses aphotosensitizing agent and laser light to kill cells. PDT retainsseveral photosensitizers in tumors for a longer time than in normaltissues, thus offering potential improvement in treatment selectivity.See Comer C., “Determination of [3H]- and [14C] hematoporphyrinderivative distribution in malignant and normal tissue,” Cancer Res1979, 3 9: 146-15 1 ; Young S W, et al., “Lutetium texaphyrin (PCI-0123)a near-infrared, water-soluble photosensitizer,” Photochem Photobiol1996, 63:892-897; and Berenbaum M C, et al.,“Meso-Tetra(hydroxyphenyl)porphyrins, a new class of potent tumorphotosensitisers with favourable selectivity,” Br J Cancer 1986,54:717-725. Photodynamic therapy uses light of a specific wavelength toactivate the photosensitizing agent. Various light sources have beendeveloped for PDT that include dye lasers and diode lasers. Lightgenerated by lasers can be coupled to optical fibers that allow thelight to be transmitted to the desired site. See Pass 1-11,“Photodynamic therapy in oncology: mechanisms and clinical use,” J NatlCancer Inst 1993, 85:443-456. According to researchers, the cytotoxiceffect of PDT is the result of photooxidation reactions, as disclosed inFoote CS, “Mechanisms of photooxygenation,” Proa Clin Biol Res 1984,170:3-18. Light causes excitation of the photosensitizer, in thepresence of oxygen, to produce various toxic species, such as singletoxygen and hydroxyl radicals. It is not clear that direct damage to DNAis a major effect; therefore, this may indicate that photoactivation ofDNA crosslinking is not stimulated efficiently.

Furthermore, when laser light is administered via external illuminationof tissue surfaces, the treatment effect of PDT is confined to a fewmillimeters (i.e. superficial). The reason for this superficiallimitation is mainly the limited penetration of the visible light usedto activate the photosensitizer. Thus, PDT is used to treat the surfacesof critical organs, such as lungs or intra-abdominal organs, withoutdamage to the underlying structures. However, even these treatmentsrequire significantly invasive techniques to treat the surface of theaffected organs. Clinical situations use the procedure in conjunctionwith surgical debulking to destroy remnants of microscopic or minimalgross disease. It is possible that the laser light and small amount ofremaining microscopic and minimal gross disease results in too little orhighly damaged structures. Pre-clinical data show that some immuneresponse is generated, but clinical trials have reported no auto vaccineeffect similar to that produced by extracorporeal photophoresis inclinical conditions. Instead, immune response appears to be vigorousonly under limited conditions and only for a limited duration.

Problems

It is well recognized that a major problem associated with the existingmethods of diagnosis and treatment of cell proliferation disorders is indifferentiation of normal cells from target cells. Such targetspecificity is difficult to achieve by way of surgery since the strategythere is simply to cut out a large enough portion of the affected areato include all diseased cells and hope that no diseased cells havespread to other distant locations.

With chemotherapy, while some degree of differentiation can be achieved,healthy cells are generally adversely affected by chemo-agents. As insurgery, the treatment strategy in chemotherapy is also to kill off alarge population of cells, with the understanding that there are farmore normal cells than diseased cells so that the organism can recoverfrom the chemical assault.

Radiation therapy works by irradiating cells with high levels of highenergy radiation such as high energy photon, electron, or proton. Thesehigh energy beams ionize the atoms which make up a DNA chain, which inturn leads to cell death. Unlike surgery, radiation therapy does notrequire placing patients under anesthesia and has the ability to treattumors deep inside the body with minimal invasion of the body. However,the high doses of radiation needed for such therapies damages healthycells just as effectively as it does diseased cells. Thus, similar tosurgery, differentiation between healthy and diseased cells in radiationtherapy is only by way of location. There is no intrinsic means for aradiation beam to differentiate between a healthy cell from a diseasedcell either.

Other methods may be more refined. For example, one form of advancedtreatment for lymphoma known as extracorporeal photopheresis involvesdrawing the patient's blood from his body into an instrument where thewhite cells (buffy coat) are separated from the plasma and the red bloodcells. A small amount of the plasma separated in this process is thenisolated and mixed with a photosensitizer (PS), a drug that can beactivated by light. The buffy coat is then exposed to a light toactivate the drug. The treated blood is then returned to the patient. Inthis example, one may think of the target-specificity problem as beingsolved by separating the blood from the rest of the body where thetarget components are easily exposed.

However, this procedure has its drawbacks; it requires drawing bloodfrom the patient, thus requiring cumbersome machinery to perform and mayrequire blood transfusion in order to maintain the volume of blood flowin the machine. Further, this also limits the size of the patient thatcan be treated, since the extracorporeal volume is great and too muchwithdrawal of blood increases the risk of hypovolemic shock. The methodis also limited to treating blood-born cell proliferation relateddisorders such as lymphoma, and is not capable of treating solid tumorsor other types of non-blood related cell proliferation disorders.

A problem encountered in PDT therapy is the inability to treat targetareas that are more than a few centimeters beneath the surface of theskin without significant invasive techniques, and the fact that PDTtypically operates by generation of sufficient quantities of singletoxygen to cause cell lysis. However, singlet oxygen in sufficientconcentration will lyse not only target cells, but also healthy cellsrather indiscriminately.

Therefore, there still exists a need for better and more effectivetreatments that can more precisely target the diseased cells withoutcausing substantial side-effects or collateral damages to healthytissues, and which are capable of treating even solid tumors or othertypes of non-blood related cell proliferation disorders.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Accordingly, one object of the present invention is to provide a methodfor the treatment of a cell proliferation disorder that permitstreatment of a subject in any area of the body while being non-invasiveand having high selectivity for targeted cells relative to healthycells.

A further object of the present invention is to provide a method fortreatment of a cell proliferation disorder which can use any suitableenergy source as the initiation energy source to activate theactivatable pharmaceutical agent and thereby cause a predeterminedcellular change to treat cells suffering from a cell proliferationdisorder.

A further object of the present invention is to provide a method fortreatment of a cell proliferation disorder using an energy cascade toactivate an activatable pharmaceutical agent that then treats cellssuffering from a cell proliferation disorder.

A further object of the present invention is to provide a method forgenerating an autovaccine effect in a subject, which can be in vivo thusavoiding the need for ex vivo treatment of subject tissues or cells, orcan be ex vivo.

A further object of the present invention is to provide a computerimplemented system for performing the methods of the present invention.

A still further object of the present invention is to provide a kit anda pharmaceutical composition for use in the present invention methods.

These and other objects of the present invention, which will become moreapparent in conjunction with the following detailed description of thepreferred embodiments, either alone or in combinations thereof, havebeen satisfied by the discovery of a method for treating a cellproliferation disorder in a subject, comprising:

-   -   (1) administering to the subject an activatable pharmaceutical        agent that is capable of effecting a predetermined cellular        change when activated, either alone or in combination with an        energy modulation agent; and    -   (2) applying an initiation energy from an initiation energy        source to the subject,

wherein the applying activates the activatable agent in situ,

thus causing the predetermined cellular change to occur, whereinoccurrence of the predetermined cellular change causes an increase ordecrease in rate of cell proliferation to treat the cell proliferationrelated disorder,

and a kit for performing the method, a pharmaceutical composition, acomputer implemented system for performing the method and a method andsystem for causing an autovaccine effect in a subject.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

A more complete appreciation of the invention and many of the attendantadvantages thereof will be readily obtained as the same becomes betterunderstood by reference to the following detailed description whenconsidered in connection with the accompanying drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 provides an exemplary electromagnetic spectrum in meters (1 nmequals 10⁻⁹ meters).

FIG. 2A and FIG. 2B are graphical representations of the depth ofpenetration of various wavelengths of energy into living tissue.

FIG. 3 illustrates a system according to one exemplary embodiment of thepresent invention.

FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary computer implemented system according toan embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary computer system (1201) for implementingvarious embodiments of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention sets forth a novel method of treating cellproliferation disorders that is effective, specific, and has fewside-effects. Those cells suffering from a cell proliferation disorderare referred to herein as the target cells. A treatment for cellproliferation disorders, including solid tumors, is capable ofchemically binding cellular nucleic acids, including but not limited to,the DNA or mitochondrial DNA or RNA of the target cells. For example, aphotoactivatable agent, such as a psoralen or a psoralen derivative, isexposed in situ to an energy source capable of activating thephotoactivatable agent or agents selected. In another example, thephotoactivatable agent is a photosensitizer. The photoactivatable agentmay be a metal nanocluster or a molecule.

As noted above, an object of the present invention is to treat cellproliferation disorders. Exemplary cell proliferation disorders mayinclude, but are not limited to, cancer, as well as bacterial and viralinfections where the invading bacteria grows at a much more rapid ratethan cells of the infected host. In addition, treatment for certaindevelopmental stage diseases related to cell proliferation, such assyndactyly, are also contemplated.

Accordingly, in one embodiment, the present invention provides methodsthat are capable of overcoming the shortcomings of the existing methods.In general, a method in accordance with the present invention utilizesthe principle of energy transfer to and among molecular agents tocontrol delivery and activation of pharmaceutically active agents suchthat delivery of the desired pharmacological effect is more focused,precise, and effective than the conventional techniques.

Generally, the present invention provides methods for the treatment ofcell proliferation disorders, in which an initiation energy sourceprovides an initiation energy that activates an activatablepharmaceutical agent to treat target cells within the subject. In onepreferred embodiment, the initiation energy source is applied indirectlyto the activatable pharmaceutical agent, preferably in proximity to thetarget cells. Within the context of the present invention, the phrase“applied indirectly” (or variants of this phrase, such as “applyingindirectly”, “indirectly applies”, “indirectly applied”, “indirectlyapplying”, etc.), when referring to the application of the initiationenergy, means the penetration by the initiation energy into the subjectbeneath the surface of the subject and to the activatable pharmaceuticalagent within a subject. In one embodiment, the initiation energyinteracts with a previously administered energy modulation agent whichthen activates the activatable pharmaceutical agent. In anotherembodiment, the initiation energy itself activates the activatablepharmaceutical agent. In either embodiment, the initiation energy sourcecannot be within line-of-sight of the activatable pharmaceutical agent.By “cannot be within line-of-sight” is meant that if a hypotheticalobserver were located at the location of the activatable pharmaceuticalagent, that observer would be unable to see the source of the initiationenergy.

Although not intending to be bound by any particular theory or beotherwise limited in any way, the following theoretical discussion ofscientific principles and definitions are provided to help the readergain an understanding and appreciation of the present invention.

As used herein, the term “subject” is not intended to be limited tohumans, but may also include animals, plants, or any suitable biologicalorganism.

As used herein, the phrase “cell proliferation disorder” refers to anycondition where the growth rate of a population of cells is less than orgreater than a desired rate under a given physiological state andconditions. Although, preferably, the proliferation rate that would beof interest for treatment purposes is faster than a desired rate, slowerthan desired rate conditions may also be treated by methods of thepresent invention. Exemplary cell proliferation disorders may include,but are not limited to, cancer, bacterial infection, immune rejectionresponse of organ transplant, solid tumors, viral infection, autoimmunedisorders (such as arthritis, lupus, inflammatory bowel disease,Sjogrens syndrome, multiple sclerosis) or a combination thereof, as wellas aplastic conditions wherein cell proliferation is low relative tohealthy cells, such as aplastic anemia. Particularly preferred cellproliferation disorders for treatment using the present methods arecancer, staphylococcus aureus (particularly antibiotic resistant strainssuch as methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus or MRSA), andautoimmune disorders.

As used herein, an “activatable pharmaceutical agent” is an agent thatnormally exists in an inactive state in the absence of an activationsignal. When the agent is activated by a matching activation signalunder activating conditions, it is capable of effecting the desiredpharmacological effect on a target cell (i.e. preferably a predeterminedcellular change). Signals that may be used to activate a correspondingagent may include, but are not limited to, photons of specificwavelengths (e.g. x-rays, or visible light), electromagnetic energy(e.g. radio or microwave), thermal energy, acoustic energy, or anycombination thereof. Activation of the agent may be as simple asdelivering the signal to the agent or may further premise on a set ofactivation conditions. For example, in the former case, an activatablepharmaceutical agent, such as a photosensitizer, may be activated byUV-A radiation. Once activated, the agent in its active-state may thendirectly proceed to effect a cellular change. Where activation mayfurther premise upon other conditions, mere delivery of the activationsignal may not be sufficient to bring about the desired cellular change.For example, a photoactive compound that achieves its pharmaceuticaleffect by binding to certain cellular structure in its active state mayrequire physical proximity to the target cellular structure when theactivation signal is delivered. For such activatable agents, delivery ofthe activation signal under non-activating conditions will not result inthe desired pharmacologic effect. Some examples of activating conditionsmay include, but are not limited to, temperature, pH, location, state ofthe cell, presence or absence of co-factors.

Selection of an activatable pharmaceutical agent greatly depends on anumber of factors such as the desired cellular change, the desired formof activation, as well as the physical and biochemical constraints thatmay apply. Exemplary activatable pharmaceutical agents may include, butare not limited to, agents that may be activated by photonic energy,electromagnetic energy, acoustic energy, chemical or enzymaticreactions, thermal energy, or any other suitable activation mechanisms.

When activated, the activatable pharmaceutical agent may effect cellularchanges that include, but are not limited to, apoptosis, redirection ofmetabolic pathways, up-regulation of certain genes, down-regulation ofcertain genes, secretion of cytokines, alteration of cytokine receptorresponses, or combinations thereof.

The mechanisms by which an activatable pharmaceutical agent may achieveits desired effect are not particularly limited. Such mechanisms mayinclude direct action on a predetermined target as well as indirectactions via alterations to the biochemical pathways. A preferred directaction mechanism is by binding the agent to a critical cellularstructure such as nuclear DNA, mRNA, rRNA, ribosome, mitochondrial DNA,or any other functionally important structures. Indirect mechanisms mayinclude releasing metabolites upon activation to interfere with normalmetabolic pathways, releasing chemical signals (e.g. agonists orantagonists) upon activation to alter the targeted cellular response,and other suitable biochemical or metabolic alterations.

In one preferred embodiment, the activatable pharmaceutical agent iscapable of chemically binding to the DNA or mitochondria at atherapeutically effective amount. In this embodiment, the activatablepharmaceutical agent, preferably a photoactivatable agent, is exposed insitu to an activating energy emitted from an energy modulation agent,which, in turn receives energy from an initiation energy source.

Suitable activatable agents include, but are not limited to, photoactiveagents, sono-active agents, thermo-active agents, andradio/microwave-active agents. An activatable agent may be a smallmolecule; a biological molecule such as a protein, a nucleic acid orlipid; a supramolecular assembly; a nanoparticle; or any other molecularentity having a pharmaceutical activity once activated.

The activatable agent may be derived from a natural or synthetic origin.Any such molecular entity that may be activated by a suitable activationsignal source to effect a predetermined cellular change may beadvantageously employed in the present invention.

Suitable photoactive agents include, but are not limited to: psoralensand psoralen derivatives, pyrene cholesteryloleate, acridine, porphyrin,fluorescein, rhodamine, 16-diazorcortisone, ethidium, transition metalcomplexes of bleomycin, transition metal complexes of deglycobleomycin,organoplatinum complexes, alloxazines such as 7,8-dimethyl-10-ribitylisoalloxazine (riboflavin), 7,8,10-trimethylisoalloxazine (lumiflavin),7,8-dimethylalloxazine (lumichrome), isoalloxazine-adenine dinucleotide(flavine adenine dinucleotide [FAD]), alloxazine mononucleotide (alsoknown as flavine mononucleotide [FMN] and riboflavine-5-phosphate),vitamin Ks, vitamin L, their metabolites and precursors, andnapththoquinones, naphthalenes, naphthols and their derivatives havingplanar molecular conformations, porphyrins, dyes such as neutral red,methylene blue, acridine, toluidines, flavine (acriflavinehydrochloride) and phenothiazine derivatives, coumarins, quinolones,quinones, and anthroquinones, aluminum (111) phthalocyaninetetrasulfonate, hematoporphyrin, and phthalocyanine, and compounds whichpreferentially adsorb to nucleic acids with little or no effect onproteins. The term “alloxazine” includes isoalloxazines.

Endogenously-based derivatives include synthetically derived analogs andhomologs of endogenous photoactivated molecules, which may have or lacklower (1 to 5 carbons) alkyl or halogen substituents of thephotosensitizers from which they are derived, and which preserve thefunction and substantial non-toxicity. Endogenous molecules areinherently non-toxic and may not yield toxic photoproducts afterphotoradiation.

Table 1 lists some photoactivatable molecules capable of beingphotoactivated to induce an auto vaccine effect.

TABLE 1 SSET and TTET rate constants for bichromophoric peptides k_(s)of k_(SSET) Λ_(eλ) donor k_(SSET) (s⁻¹) R₀ R R_(model)(A) k_(TTET)Compound (nm) E_(SSET) (s⁻¹) (s⁻¹) (Average) (A) (A) (Average) E_(TTET)(s⁻¹) 1B 224 96.3 9.5 × 10⁶ 2.44 × 10⁸  1.87 × 10⁸ 14.7 9 9.5 266 95 1.8× 10⁸ 2.5  5 × 10² 280 94 1.36 × 10⁸  1A 224 80 9.5 × 10⁶ 3.8 × 10⁷ 3.67× 10⁷ 14.7 11.8 14.1 266 79 3.6 × 10⁷ 2 3.6 × 10² 280 79 3.6 × 10⁷ 2B224 77 9.5 × 10⁶ 3.1 × 10⁷  3.9 × 10⁷ 14.7 11.9 6.5 266 81 3.9 × 10⁷ 329.4 × 10³ 280 83 4.7 × 10⁷ 2A 224 69 9.5 × 10⁶ 2.1 × 10⁷   3 × 10⁷ 14.712.2 8.1 74.3 5.7 × 10⁴ 266 80 3.7 × 10⁷ 280 77 3.2 × 10⁷

Table 2 lists some additional endogenous photoactivatable molecules.

TABLE 2 Biocompatible, endogenous fluorophore emitters. Excitation Max.Emission Max. Endogenous Fluorophores (nm) (nm) Amino acids: Tryptophan280 350 Tyrosine 275 300 Phenylalanine 260 280 Structural Proteins:Collagen 325, 360 400, 405 Elastin 290, 325 340, 400 Enzymes andCoenzymes: flavin adenine dinucleotide 450 535 reduced nicotinamidedinucelotide 290, 351 440, 460 reduced nicotinamide dinucelotidephosphate 336 464 Vitamins: Vitamins A 327 510 Vitamins K 335 480Vitamins D 390 480 Vitamins B₆ compounds: Pyridoxine 332, 340 400Pyridoxamine 335 400 Pyridoxal 330 385 Pyridoxic acid 315 425 Pyridoxalphosphate   5′-330 400 Vitamin B₁₂ 275 305 Lipids: Phospholipids 436540, 560 Lipofuscin 340-395 540, 430-460 Ceroid 340-395 430-460, 540Porphyrins 400-450 630, 690

FIG. 1 provides an exemplary electromagnetic spectrum in meters (1 nmequals 10⁻⁹ meters).

The nature of the predetermined cellular change will depend on thedesired pharmaceutical outcome. Exemplary cellular changes may include,but are not limited to, apoptosis, necrosis, up-regulation of certaingenes, down-regulation of certain genes, secretion of cytokines,alteration of cytokine receptor responses, or a combination thereof.

As used herein, an “energy modulation agent” refers to an agent that iscapable of receiving an energy input from a source and then re-emittinga different energy to a receiving target. Energy transfer amongmolecules may occur in a number of ways. The form of energy may beelectronic, thermal, electromagnetic, kinetic, or chemical in nature.Energy may be transferred from one molecule to another (intermoleculartransfer) or from one part of a molecule to another part of the samemolecule (intramolecular transfer). For example, a modulation agent mayreceive electromagnetic energy and re-emit the energy in the form ofthermal energy. In preferred embodiments, the energy modulation agentreceives higher energy (e.g. x-ray) and re-emits in lower energy (e.g.UV-A). Some modulation agents may have a very short energy retentiontime (on the order of fs, e.g. fluorescent molecules) whereas others mayhave a very long half-life (on the order of minutes to hours, e.g.luminescent or phosphorescent molecules). Suitable energy modulationagents include, but are not limited to, a biocompatible fluorescingmetal nanoparticle, fluorescing dye molecule, gold nanoparticle, a watersoluble quantum dot encapsulated by polyamidoamine dendrimers, aluciferase, a biocompatible phosphorescent molecule, a combinedelectromagnetic energy harvester molecule, and a lanthanide chelatecapable of intense luminescence. Various exemplary uses of these aredescribed below in preferred embodiments.

The modulation agents may further be coupled to a carrier for cellulartargeting purposes. For example, a biocompatible molecule, such as afluorescing metal nanoparticle or fluorescing dye molecule that emits inthe UV-A band, may be selected as the energy modulation agent.

The energy modulation agent may be preferably directed to the desiredsite (e.g. a tumor) by systemic administration to a subject. Forexample, a UV-A emitting energy modulation agent may be concentrated inthe tumor site by physical insertion or by conjugating the UV-A emittingenergy modulation agent with a tumor specific carrier, such as a lipid,chitin or chitin-derivative, a chelate or other functionalized carrierthat is capable of concentrating the UV-A emitting source in a specifictarget tumor.

Additionally, the energy modulation agent can be used alone or as aseries of two or more energy modulation agents wherein the energymodulation agents provide an energy cascade. Thus, the first energymodulation agent in the cascade will absorb the activation energy,convert it to a different energy which is then absorbed by the secondenergy modulation in the cascade, and so forth until the end of thecascade is reached with the final energy modulation agent in the cascadeemitting the energy necessary to activate the activatable pharmaceuticalagent.

Although the activatable pharmaceutical agent and the energy modulationagent can be distinct and separate, it will be understood that the twoagents need not be independent and separate entities. In fact, the twoagents may be associated with each other via a number of differentconfigurations. Where the two agents are independent and separatelymovable from each other, they generally interact with each other viadiffusion and chance encounters within a common surrounding medium.Where the activatable pharmaceutical agent and the energy modulationagent are not separate, they may be combined into one single entity.

The initiation energy source can be any energy source capable ofproviding energy at a level sufficient to activate the activatable agentdirectly, or to provide the energy modulation agent with the inputneeded to emit the activation energy for the activatable agent (indirectactivation). Preferable initiation energy sources include, but are notlimited to, UV-A lamps or fiber optic lines, a light needle, anendoscope, and a linear accelerator that generates x-ray, gamma-ray, orelectron beams. In a preferred embodiment the initiation energy capableof penetrating completely through the subject. Within the context of thepresent invention, the phrase “capable of penetrating completely throughthe subject” is used to refer to energy that can penetrate to any depthwithin the subject to activate the activatable pharmaceutical agent. Itis not required that the any of the energy applied actually passcompletely through the subject, merely that it be capable of doing so inorder to permit penetration to any desired depth to activate theactivatable pharmaceutical agent. Exemplary initiation energy sourcesthat are capable of penetrating completely through the subject include,but are not limited to, x-rays, gamma rays, electron beams, microwavesand radio waves.

In one embodiment, the source of the initiation energy can be aradiowave emitting nanotube, such as those described by K. Jensen, J.Weldon, H. Garcia, and A. Zettl in the Department of Physics at theUniversity of California at Berkeley (seehttp://socrates.berkeley.edu/˜argon/nonradio/radio/html, the entirecontents of which are hereby incorporated by reference). These nanotubescan be administered to the subject, and preferably would be coupled tothe activatable pharmaceutical agent or the energy modulation agent, orboth, such that upon application of the initiation energy, the nanotubeswould accept the initiation energy (prefereably radiowaves), then emitradiowaves in close proximity to the activatable pharmaceutical agent,or in close proximity to the energy modulation agent, to then causeactivation of the activatable pharmaceutical agent. In such anembodiment, the nanotubes would act essentially as a radiowave focusingor amplification device in close proximity to the activatablepharmaceutical agent or energy modulation agent.

Alternatively, the energy emitting source may be an energy modulationagent that emits energy in a form suitable for absorption by thetransfer agent. For example, the initiation energy source may beacoustic energy and one energy modulation agent may be capable ofreceiving acoustic energy and emitting photonic energy (e.g.sonoluminescent molecules) to be received by another energy modulationagent that is capable of receiving photonic energy. Other examplesinclude transfer agents that receive energy at x-ray wavelength and emitenergy at UV wavelength, preferably at UV-A wavelength. As noted above,a plurality of such energy modulation agents may be used to form acascade to transfer energy from initiation energy source via a series ofenergy modulation agents to activate the activatable agent.

Signal transduction schemes as a drug delivery vehicle may beadvantageously developed by careful modeling of the cascade eventscoupled with metabolic pathway knowledge to sequentially orsimultaneously activate multiple activatable pharmaceutical agents toachieve multiple-point alterations in cellular function.

Photoactivatable agents may be stimulated by an energy source, such asirradiation, resonance energy transfer, exciton migration, electroninjection, or chemical reaction, to an activated energy state that iscapable of effecting the predetermined cellular change desired. In apreferred embodiment, the photoactivatable agent, upon activation, bindsto DNA or RNA or other structures in a cell. The activated energy stateof the agent is capable of causing damage to cells, inducing apoptosis.The mechanism of apoptosis is associated with an enhanced immuneresponse that reduces the growth rate of cell proliferation disordersand may shrink solid tumors, depending on the state of the patient'simmune system, concentration of the agent in the tumor, sensitivity ofthe agent to stimulation, and length of stimulation.

A preferred method of treating a cell proliferation disorder of thepresent invention administers a photoactivatable agent to a patient,stimulates the photoactivatable agent to induce cell damage, andgenerates an auto vaccine effect. In one further preferred embodiment,the photoactivatable agent is stimulated via a resonance energytransfer.

One advantage is that multiple wavelengths of emitted radiation may beused to selectively stimulate one or more photoactivatable agents orenergy modulation agents capable of stimulating the one or morephotoactivatable agents. The energy modulation agent is preferablystimulated at a wavelength and energy that causes little or no damage tohealthy cells, with the energy from one or more energy modulation agentsbeing transferred, such as by Foerster Resonance Energy Transfer, to thephotoactivatable agents that damage the cell and cause the onset of thedesired cellular change, such as apoptosis of the cells.

Another advantage is that side effects can be greatly reduced bylimiting the production of free radicals, singlet oxygen, hydroxides andother highly reactive groups that are known to damage healthy cells.Furthermore, additional additives, such as antioxidants, may be used tofurther reduce undesired effects of irradiation.

Resonance Energy Transfer (RET) is an energy transfer mechanism betweentwo molecules having overlapping emission and absorption bands.Electromagnetic emitters are capable of converting an arrivingwavelength to a longer wavelength. For example, UV-B energy absorbed bya first molecule may be transferred by a dipole-dipole interaction to aUV-A-emitting molecule in close proximity to the UV-B-absorbingmolecule. Alternatively, a material absorbing a shorter wavelength maybe chosen to provide RET to a non-emitting molecule that has anoverlapping absorption band with the transferring molecule's emissionband. Alternatively, phosphorescence, chemiluminescence, orbioluminescence may be used to transfer energy to a photoactivatablemolecule.

Alternatively, one can administer the initiation energy source to thesubject. Within the context of the present invention, the administeringof the initiation energy source means the administration of an agent,that itself produces the initiation energy, in a manner that permits theagent to arrive at the target cell within the subject without beingsurgically inserted into the subject. The administration can take anyform, including, but not limited to, oral, intravenous, intraperitoneal,inhalation, etc. Further, the initiation energy source in thisembodiment can be in any form, including, but not limited to, tablet,powder, liquid solution, liquid suspension, liquid dispersion, gas orvapor, etc. In this embodiment, the initiation energy source includes,but is not limited to, chemical energy sources, nanoemitters, nanochips,and other nanomachines that produce and emit energy of a desiredfrequency. Recent advances in nanotechnology have provided examples ofvarious devices that are nanoscale and produce or emit energy, such asthe Molecular Switch (or Mol-Switch) work by Dr. Keith Firman of the ECResearch and Development Project, or the work of Cornell et al. (1997)who describe the construction of nanomachines based around ion-channelswitches only 1.5 nm in size, which use ion channels formed in anartificial membrane by two gramicidin molecules: one in the lower layerof the membrane attached to a gold electrode and one in the upper layertethered to biological receptors such as antibodies or nucleotides. Whenthe receptor captures a target molecule or cell, the ion channel isbroken, its conductivity drops, and the biochemical signal is convertedinto an electrical signal. These nanodevices could also be coupled withthe present invention to provide targeting of the target cell, todeliver the initiation energy source directly at the desired site. Inanother embodiment, the present invention includes the administration ofthe activatable pharmaceutical agent, along with administration of asource of chemical energy such as chemiluminescence, phosphorescence orbioluminescence. The source of chemical energy can be a chemicalreaction between two or more compounds, or can be induced by activatinga chemiluminescent, phosphorescent or bioluminescent compound with anappropriate activation energy, either outside the subject or inside thesubject, with the chemiluminescence, phosphorescence or bioluminescencebeing allowed to activate the activatable pharmaceutical agent in vivoafter administration. The administration of the activatablepharmaceutical agent and the source of chemical energy can be performedsequentially in any order or can be performed simultaneously. In thecase of certain sources of such chemical energy, the administration ofthe chemical energy source can be performed after activation outside thesubject, with the lifetime of the emission of the energy being up toseveral hours for certain types of phosphorescent materials for example.There are no known previous efforts to use resonance energy transfer ofany kind to activate an intercalator to bind DNA.

Yet another example is that nanoparticles or nanoclusters of certainatoms may be introduced such that are capable of resonance energytransfer over comparatively large distances, such as greater than onenanometer, more preferably greater than five nanometers, even morepreferably at least 10 nanometers. Functionally, resonance energytransfer may have a large enough “Foerster” distance (R₀), such thatnanoparticles in one part of a cell are capable of stimulatingactivation of photoactivatable agents disposed in a distant portion ofthe cell, so long as the distance does not greatly exceed R₀. Forexample, gold nanospheres having a size of 5 atoms of gold have beenshown to have an emission band in the ultraviolet range, recently.

The present invention treatment may also be used for inducing an autovaccine effect for malignant cells, including those in solid tumors. Tothe extent that any rapidly dividing cells or stem cells may be damagedby a systemic treatment, then it may be preferable to direct thestimulating energy directly toward the tumor, preventing damage to mostnormal, healthy cells or stem cells by avoiding photoactivation orresonant energy transfer of the photoactivatable agent.

Alternatively, a treatment may be applied that slows or pauses mitosis.Such a treatment is capable of slowing the division of rapidly dividinghealthy cells or stem cells during the treatment, without pausingmitosis of cancerous cells. Alternatively, a blocking agent isadministered preferentially to malignant cells prior to administeringthe treatment that slows mitosis.

In one embodiment, an aggressive cell proliferation disorder has a muchhigher rate of mitosis, which leads to selective destruction of adisproportionate share of the malignant cells during even a systemicallyadministered treatment. Stem cells and healthy cells may be spared fromwholesale programmed cell death, even if exposed to photoactivatedagents, provided that such photoactivated agents degenerate from theexcited state to a lower energy state prior to binding, mitosis or othermechanisms for creating damage to the cells of a substantial fraction ofthe healthy stem cells. Thus, an auto-immune response may not beinduced.

Alternatively, a blocking agent may be used that prevents or reducesdamage to stem cells or healthy cells, selectively, which wouldotherwise be impaired. The blocking agent is selected or is administeredsuch that the blocking agent does not impart a similar benefit tomalignant cells, for example.

In one embodiment, stem cells are targeted, specifically, fordestruction with the intention of replacing the stem cells with a donorcell line or previously stored, healthy cells of the patient. In thiscase, no blocking agent is used. Instead, a carrier or photosensitizeris used that specifically targets the stem cells.

Any of the photoactivatable agents may be exposed to an excitationenergy source implanted in a tumor. The photoactive agent may bedirected to a receptor site by a carrier having a strong affinity forthe receptor site. Within the context of the present invention, a“strong affinity” is preferably an affinity having an equilibriumdissociation constant, K_(i), at least in the nanomolar, nM, range orhigher. Preferably, the carrier may be a polypeptide and may form acovalent bond with a photoactive agent, for example. The polypeptide maybe an insulin, interleukin, thymopoietin or transferrin, for example.Alternatively, a photoactive agent may have a strong affinity for thetarget cell without binding to a carrier.

A receptor site may be any of the following: nucleic acids of nucleatedblood cells, molecule receptor sites of nucleated blood cells, theantigenic sites on nucleated blood cells, epitopes, or other sites wherephotoactive agents are capable of destroying a targeted cell.

In one embodiment, thin fiber optic lines are inserted in the tumor andlaser light is used to photoactivate the agents. In another embodiment,a plurality of sources for supplying electromagnetic radiation energy orenergy transfer are provided by one or more molecules administered to apatient. The molecules may emit stimulating radiation in the correctband of wavelength to stimulate the photoactivatable agents, or themolecules may transfer energy by a resonance energy transfer or othermechanism directly to the photoactivatable agent or indirectly by acascade effect via other molecular interactions.

In another embodiment, the patient's own cells are removed andgenetically modified to provide photonic emissions. For example, tumoror healthy cells may be removed, genetically modified to inducebioluminescence and may be reinserted at the site of the tumor to betreated. The modified, bioluminescent cells may be further modified toprevent further division of the cells or division of the cells only solong as a regulating agent is present. Administration of anintercalator, systemically or targeting tumor cells, that is capable ofphotoactivation by bioluminescent cells may produce conditions suitablefor creating an auto vaccine effect due to apoptosis of malignant cells.Preferably, apoptosis triggers and stimulates the body to develop animmune response targeting the malignant cells.

In a further embodiment, a biocompatible emitting source, such as afluorescing metal nanoparticle or fluorescing dye molecule, is selectedthat emits in the UV-A band. The UV-A emitting source is directed to thesite of a tumor. The UV-A emitting source may be directed to the site ofthe tumor by systemically administering the UV-A emitting source.Preferably, the UV-A emitting source is concentrated in the tumor site,such as by physical insertion or by conjugating the UV-A emittingmolecule with a tumor specific carrier, such as a lipid, chitin orchitin-derivative, a chelate or other functionalized carrier that iscapable of concentrating the UV-A emitting source in a specific targettumor, as is known in the art.

In one preferred embodiment, the UV-A emitting source is a goldnanoparticle comprising a cluster of 5 gold atoms, such as a watersoluble quantum dot encapsulated by polyamidoamine dendrimers. The goldatom clusters may be produced through a slow reduction of gold salts(e.g. HAuCl₄ or AuBr₃) or other encapsulating amines, for example. Oneadvantage of such a gold nanoparticle is the increased Foerster distance(i.e. R₀), which may be greater than 100 angstroms. The equation fordetermining the Foerster distance is substantially different from thatfor molecular fluorescence, which is limited to use at distances lessthan 100 angstroms. It is believed that the gold nanoparticles aregoverned by nanoparticle surface to dipole equations with a 1/R⁴distance dependence rather than a 1/R⁶ distance dependence. For example,this permits cytoplasmic to nuclear energy transfer between metalnanoparticles and a photoactivatable molecule, such as a psoralen andmore preferably an 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) administered orally to apatient, which is known to be safe and effective at inducing anapoptosis of leukocytes.

In another embodiment, a UV- or light-emitting luciferase is selected asthe emitting source for exciting a photoactivatable agent. A luciferasemay be combined with ATP or another molecule, which may then beoxygenated with additional molecules to stimulate light emission at adesired wavelength. Alternatively, a phosphorescent emitting source maybe used. One advantage of a phosphorescent emitting source is that thephosphorescent emitting molecules or other source may beelectroactivated or photoactivated prior to insertion into the tumoreither by systemic administration or direct insertion into the region ofthe tumor. Phosphorescent materials may have longer relaxation timesthan fluorescent materials, because relaxation of a triplet state issubject to forbidden energy state transitions, storing the energy in theexcited triplet state with only a limited number of quantum mechanicalenergy transfer processes available for returning to the lower energystate. Energy emission is delayed or prolonged from a fraction of asecond to several hours. Otherwise, the energy emitted duringphosphorescent relaxation is not otherwise different than fluorescence,and the range of wavelengths may be selected by choosing a particularphosphor.

In another embodiment, a combined electromagnetic energy harvestermolecule is designed, such as the combined light harvester disclosed inJ. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 9760-9768, the entire contents of which arehereby incorporated by reference. By combining a group of fluorescentmolecules in a molecular structure, a resonance energy transfer cascademay be used to harvest a wide band of electromagnetic radiationresulting in emission of a narrow band of fluorescent energy. By pairinga combined energy harvester with a photoactivatable molecule, a furtherenergy resonance transfer excites the photoactivatable molecule, whenthe photoactivatable molecule is nearby stimulated combined energyharvester molecules. Another example of a harvester molecule isdisclosed in FIG. 4 of “Singlet-Singlet and Triplet-Triplet EnergyTransfer in Bichromophoric Cyclic Peptides,” M.S. Thesis by M.O. Guler,Worcester Polytechnic Institute, May 18, 2002, which is incorporatedherein by reference.

In another embodiment, a Stokes shift of an emitting source or a seriesof emitting sources arranged in a cascade is selected to convert ashorter wavelength energy, such as X-rays, to a longer wavelengthfluorescence emission such a optical or UV-A, which is used to stimulatea photoactivatable molecule at the location of the tumor cells.Preferably, the photoactivatable molecule is selected to cause anapoptosis sequence in tumor cells without causing substantial harm tonormal, healthy cells. More preferably, the apoptosis sequence thenleads to an auto vaccine effect that targets the malignant tumor cellsthroughout the patient's body.

In an additional embodiment, the photoactivatable agent can be aphotocaged complex having an active agent (which can be a cytotoxicagent or can be an activatable pharmaceutical agent) contained within aphotocage. The active agent is bulked up with other molecules thatprevent it from binding to specific targets, thus masking its activity.When the photocage complex is photoactivated, the bulk falls off,exposing the active agent. In such a photocage complex, the photocagemolecules can be photoactive (i.e. when photoactivated, they are causedto dissociate from the photocage complex, thus exposing the active agentwithin), or the active agent can be the photoactivatable agent (whichwhen photoactivated causes the photocage to fall off), or both thephotocage and the active agent are photoactivated, with the same ordifferent wavelengths. For example, a toxic chemotherapeutic agent canbe photocaged, which will reduce the systemic toxicity when delivered.Once the agent is concentrated in the tumor, the agent is irradiatedwith an activation energy. This causes the “cage” to fall off, leaving acytotoxic agent in the tumor cell. Suitable photocages include thosedisclosed by Young and Deiters in “Photochemical Control of BiologicalProcesses”, Org. Biomol. Chem., 5, pp. 999-1005 (2007) and“Photochemical Hammerhead Ribozyme Activation”, Bioorganic & MedicinalChemistry Letters, 16(10), pp. 2658-2661 (2006), the contents of whichare hereby incorporated by reference.

In a further embodiment, some of the tumor cells are treated in vitrousing a UV-A source to stimulate 8-MOP. Apoptosis of the tumor cells ismonitored, and some or all of the fragments and remnants of theapoptosis process are reintroduced into the site of a tumor. Preferably,the portion of fragments, cellular structures and remnants are selectedsuch that an auto vaccine effect is generated that leads to furtherapoptosis of tumor cells without substantially harming healthy tissues,causing solid tumors to shrink.

In one embodiment, a lanthanide chelate capable of intense luminescenceis used. For example, a lanthanide chelator may be covalently joined toa coumarin or coumarin derivative or a quinolone or quinolone-derivativesensitizer. Sensitizers may be a 2- or 4-quinolone, a 2- or 4-coumarin,or derivatives or combinations of these examples. A carbostyril 124(7-amino-4-methyl-2-quinolone), a coumarin 120(7-amino-4-methyl-2-coumarin), a coumarin 124(7-amino-4-(trifluoromethyl)-2-coumarin), aminoinethyltrimethylpsoralenor other similar sensitizer may be used. Chelates may be selected toform high affinity complexes with lanthanides, such as terbium oreuropium, through chelator groups, such as DTPA. Such chelates may becoupled to any of a wide variety of well known probes or carriers, andmay be used for resonance energy transfer to a psoralen orpsoralen-derivative, such as 8-MOP, or other photoactive moleculescapable of binding DNA and causing the initiation of an apoptosisprocess of rapidly dividing cancer cells. In this way, the treatment maybe targeted to especially aggressive forms of cell proliferationdisorders that are not successfully treated by conventionalchemotherapy, radiation or surgical techniques. In one alternativeexample, the lanthanide chelate is localized at the site of the tumorusing an appropriate carrier molecule, particle or polymer, and a sourceof electromagnetic energy is introduced by minimally invasive proceduresto irradiate the tumor cells, after exposure to the lanthanide chelateand a photoactive molecule.

In another embodiment, a biocompatible, endogenous fluorophore emitteris selected to stimulate resonance energy transfer to a photoactivatablemolecule. A biocompatible emitter with an emission maxima within theabsorption range of the biocompatible, endogenous fluorophore emittermay be selected to stimulate an excited state in fluorophore emitter.One or more halogen atoms may be added to any cyclic ring structurecapable of intercalation between the stacked nucleotide bases in anucleic acid (either DNA or RNA) to confer new photoactive properties tothe intercalator. Any intercalating molecule (psoralens, coumarins, orother polycyclic ring structures) may be selectively modified byhalogenation or addition of non-hydrogen bonding ionic substituents toimpart advantages in its reaction photochemistry and its competitivebinding affinity for nucleic acids over cell membranes or chargedproteins, as is known in the art.

Recently, photosensitizers have been developed for treating cellproliferation disorders using photodynamic therapy. Table 3 provides anassortment of known photosensitizers that are useful in treating cellproliferation disorders.

TABLE 3 Photosensitizers for cell proliferation disorders. WavelengthLength of Photosen- Drug-light of photosen- sitizer Dose intervalactivation sitization Photofrin 2 mg/kg 48 hrs 630 nm 4-6 weeks (II)Foscan 0.1 mg/kg 4-6 days 652 nm 2 weeks Lutetium 2-6 mg/kg 3 to 24 hrs732 nm 24-48 hrs texahyrin

Skin photosensitivity is a major toxicity of the photosensitizers.Severe sunburn occurs if skin is exposed to direct sunlight for even afew minutes. Early murine research hinted at a vigorous and long termstimulation of immune response; however, actual clinical testing hasfailed to achieve the early promises of photodynamic therapies. Theearly photosensitizers for photodynamic therapies targeted type IIresponses, which created singlet oxygen when photoactivated in thepresence of oxygen. The singlet oxygen caused cellular necrosis and wasassociated with inflammation and an immune response. However, tumors arenow known to down regulate the immune response over time, and it isthought that this is one of the reasons that clinical results are not asdramatic as promised by the early murine research. Some additionalphotosensitizers have been developed to induce type I responses,directly damaging cellular structures, which result in apoptosis oftumor cells.

Porfimer sodium (Photofrin; QLT Therapeutics, Vancouver, BC, Canada), isa partially purified preparation of hematoporphyrin derivative (HpD).Photofrin has been approved by the US Food and Drug Adininisration forthe treatment of obstructing esophageal cancer, microinvasiveendobronchial non-small cell lung cancer, and obstructing endobronchialnon-small cell lung cancer. Photofrin is activated with 630 nm, whichhas a tissue penetration of approximately 2 to 5 mm. Photofrin has arelatively long duration of skin photosensitivity (approximately 4 to 6weeks).

Tetra (m-hydroxyphenyl) chlorin (Foscan; Scotia Pharmaceuticals,Stirling, UK), is a synthetic chlorin compound that is activated by 652nm light. Clinical studies have demonstrated a tissue effect of up to 10mm with Foscan and 652 nm light. Foscan is more selectively aphotosensitizer in tumors than normal tissues, and requires acomparatively short light activation time. A recommended dose of 0.1mg/kg is comparatively low and comparatively low doses of light may beused. Nevertheless, duration of skin photosensitivity is reasonable(approximately 2 weeks). However, Foscan induces a comparatively highyield of singlet oxygen, which may be the primary mechanism of DNAdamage for this molecule.

Motexafin lutetium (Lutetium texaphryin) is activated by light in thenear infared region (732 nm). Absorption at this wavelength has theadvantage of potentially deeper penetration into tissues, compared withthe amount of light used to activate other photosensitizers (FIGS. 2Aand 2B). Lutetium texaphryin also has one of the greatest reportedselectivities for tumors compared to selectivities of normal tissues.Young S W, et al.: Lutetium texaphyrin (PCI-0123) a near-infrared,water-soluble photosensitizer. Photochem Photobiol 1996, 63:892-897. Inaddition, its clinical use is associated with a shorter duration of skinphotosensitivity (24 to 48 hours). Lutetium texaphryin has beenevaluated for metastatic skin cancers. It is currently underinvestigation for treatment of recurrent breast cancer and for locallyrecurrent prostate cancer. The high selectivity for tumors promisesimproved results in clinical trials.

In general, the approach may be used with any source for the excitationof higher electronic energy states, such as electrical, chemical and/orradiation, individually or combined into a system for activating anactivatable molecule. The process may be a photophoresis process or maybe similar to photophoresis. While photophoresis is generally thought tobe limited to photonic excitation, such as by UV-light, other forms ofradiation may be used as a part of a system to activate an activatablemolecule. Radiation includes ionizing radiation which is high energyradiation, such as an X-ray or a gamma ray, which interacts to produceion pairs in matter. Radiation also includes high linear energy transferirradiation, low linear energy transfer irradiation, alpha rays, betarays, neutron beams, accelerated electron beams, and ultraviolet rays.Radiation also includes proton, photon and fission-spectrum neutrons.Higher energy ionizing radiation may be combined with chemical processesto produce energy states favorable for resonance energy transfer, forexample. Other combinations and variations of these sources ofexcitation energy may be combined as is known in the art, in order tostimulate the activation of an activatable molecule, such as 8-MOP. Inone example, ionizing radiation is directed at a solid tumor andstimulates, directly or indirectly, activation of 8-MOP, as well asdirectly damaging the DNA of malignant tumor cells. In this example,either the effect of ionizing radiation or the photophoresis-likeactivation of 8-MOP may be thought of as an adjuvant therapy to theother.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method for treatinga cell proliferation disorder in a subject, comprising:

-   -   (1) administering to the subject an activatable pharmaceutical        agent that is capable of effecting a predetermined cellular        change when activated; and    -   (2) applying an initiation energy from an initiation energy        source to the subject,        wherein the initiation energy source is a source of energy        capable of penetrating completely through the subject, and        wherein the applying activates the activatable agent in situ,

thus causing the predetermined cellular change to occur, whereinoccurrence of the predetermined cellular change causes an increase inrate or decrease in rate of cell proliferation to treat the cellproliferation disorder.

In a further embodiment, the present invention provides a method fortreating a cell proliferation disorder in a subject, comprising:

(1) administering to the subject one or more energy modulation agentsand an activatable pharmaceutical agent that is capable of effecting apredetermined cellular change when activated; and

(2) applying an initiation energy from an initiation energy source tothe subject,

wherein the one or more energy modulation agents convert the initiationenergy applied to UV-A or visible energy, which then activates theactivatable agent in situ,

thus causing the predetermined cellular change to occur, whereinoccurrence of the predetermined cellular change causes an increase inrate or decrease in rate of cell proliferation to treat the cellproliferation disorder.

In a further embodiment, the present invention provides a method fortreating a cell proliferation disorder in a subject, comprising:

(1) administering to the subject an activatable pharmaceutical agentthat is capable of effecting a predetermined cellular change whenactivated; and

(2) applying an initiation energy from an initiation energy source tothe subject,

wherein the initiation energy applied and activatable pharmaceuticalagent upon activation produce insufficient singlet oxygen in the subjectto produce cell lysis, and wherein the initiation energy activates theactivatable pharmaceutical agent in situ,

thus causing the predetermined cellular change to occur, whereinoccurrence of the predetermined cellular change causes an increase inrate or decrease in rate of cell proliferation to treat the cellproliferation disorder.

Work in the area of photodynamic therapy has shown that the amount ofsinglet oxygen required to cause cell lysis, and thus cell death, is0.32×10⁻³ mol/liter or more, or 10⁹ singlet oxygen molecules/cell ormore. However, in the present invention, it is most preferable to avoidproduction of an amount of singlet oxygen that would cause cell lysis,due to its indiscriminate nature of attack, lysing both target cells andhealthy cells. Accordingly, it is most preferred in the presentinvention that the level of singlet oxygen production caused by theinitiation energy used or activatable pharmaceutical agent uponactivation be less than level needed to cause cell lysis.

In yet another embodiment, the activatable pharmaceutical agent,preferably a photoactive agent, is directed to a receptor site by acarrier having a strong affinity for the receptor site. The carrier maybe a polypeptide and may form a covalent bond with a photo active agent,for example. The polypeptide may be an insulin, interleukin,thymopoietin or transferrin, for example. Alternatively, a photoactivepharmaceutical agent may have a strong affinity for the target cellwithout a binding to a carrier.

For example, a treatment may be applied that acts to slow or pausemitosis. Such a treatment is capable of slowing the division of rapidlydividing healthy cells or stem cells without pausing mitosis ofcancerous cells. Thus, the difference in growth rate between thenon-target cells and target cells are further differentiated to enhancethe effectiveness of the methods of the present invention.

In another example, an aggressive cell proliferation disorder has a muchhigher rate of mitosis, which leads to selective destruction of adisproportionate share of the malignant cells during even a systemicallyadministered treatment. Stem cells and healthy cells may be spared fromwholesale programmed cell death even if exposed to photoactivated agentsthat cause apoptosis, provided that such photoactivated agentsdegenerate from the excited state to a lower energy state prior tobinding, mitosis or other mechanisms for creating damage to the cells ofa substantial fraction of the healthy stem cells. To further protecthealthy cells from the effect of photoactivatable agents, blockingagents that block uptake of the photoactivatable agents, prior to theiractivation, may be administered.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,235,508, discloses that a variety of blocking agentshave been found to be suitable for this purpose, some of which aretraditional antioxidants, and some of which are not. Suitable blockingagents include, but are not limited to, histidine, cysteine, tryrosine,tryptophan, ascorbate, N-acetyl cysteine, propyl gallate,mercaptopropionyl glycine, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylatedhydroxyanisole (BHA).

In a further embodiment, methods in accordance with the presentinvention may further include adding an additive to alleviate treatmentside-effects. Exemplary additives may include, but are not limited to,antioxidants, adjuvant, or combinations thereof. In one exemplaryembodiment, psoralen is used as the activatable pharmaceutical agent,UV-A is used as the activating energy, and antioxidants are added toreduce the unwanted side-effects of irradiation.

The activatable pharmaceutical agent and derivatives thereof as well asthe energy modulation agent, can be incorporated into pharmaceuticalcompositions suitable for administration. Such compositions typicallycomprise the activatable pharmaceutical agent and a pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier. The pharmaceutical composition also comprises atleast one additive having a complementary therapeutic or diagnosticeffect, wherein the additive is one selected from an antioxidant, anadjuvant, or a combination thereof.

As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is intended toinclude any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterialand antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and thelike, compatible with pharmaceutical administration. The use of suchmedia and agents for pharmaceutically active substances is well known inthe art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent isincompatible with the active compound, use thereof in the compositionsis contemplated. Supplementary active compounds can also be incorporatedinto the compositions. Modifications can be made to the compound of thepresent invention to affect solubility or clearance of the compound.These molecules may also be synthesized with D-amino acids to increaseresistance to enzymatic degradation. If necessary, the activatablepharmaceutical agent can be co-administered with a solubilizing agent,such as cyclodextran.

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention is formulated to becompatible with its intended route of administration. Examples of routesof administration include parenteral, e.g., intravenous, intradermal,subcutaneous, oral (e.g., inhalation), transdermal (topical),transmucosal, rectal administration, and direct injection into theaffected area, such as direct injection into a tumor. Solutions orsuspensions used for parenteral, intradermal, or subcutaneousapplication can include the following components: a sterile diluent suchas water for injection, saline solution, fixed oils, polyethyleneglycols, glycerin, propylene glycol or other synthetic solvents;antibacterial agents such as benzyl alcohol or methyl parabens;antioxidants such as ascorbic acid or sodium bisulfite; chelating agentssuch as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; buffers such as acetates,citrates or phosphates, and agents for the adjustment of tonicity suchas sodium chloride or dextrose. The pH can be adjusted with acids orbases, such as hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. The parenteralpreparation can be enclosed in ampoules, disposable syringes or multipledose vials made of glass or plastic.

Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for injectable use include sterileaqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersions and sterilepowders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectablesolutions or dispersion. For intravenous administration, suitablecarriers include physiological saline, bacteriostatic water, orphosphate buffered saline (PBS). In all cases, the composition must besterile and should be fluid to the extent that easy syringabilityexists. It must be stable under the conditions of manufacture andstorage and must be preserved against the contaminating action ofmicroorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. The carrier can be a solventor dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol(for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, and liquid polyethyleneglycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof. The properfluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating such aslecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the caseof dispersion and by the use of surfactants. Prevention of the action ofmicroorganisms can be achieved by various antibacterial and antifungalagents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, ascorbic acid,thimerosal, and the like. In many cases, it will be preferable toinclude isotonic agents, for example, sugars, polyalcohols such asmanitol, sorbitol, sodium chloride in the composition. Prolongedabsorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about byincluding in the composition an agent which delays absorption, forexample, aluminum monostearate and gelatin.

Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating the activecompound in the required amount in an appropriate solvent with one or acombination of ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed byfiltered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared byincorporating the active compound into a sterile vehicle that contains abasic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from thoseenumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation ofsterile injectable solutions, methods of preparation are vacuum dryingand freeze-drying that yields a powder of the active ingredient plus anyadditional desired ingredient from a previously sterile-filteredsolution thereof.

Oral compositions generally include an inert diluent or an ediblecarrier. They can be enclosed in gelatin capsules or compressed intotablets. For the purpose of oral therapeutic administration, the activecompound can be incorporated with excipients and used in the form oftablets, troches, or capsules. Oral compositions can also be preparedusing a fluid carrier for use as a mouthwash, wherein the compound inthe fluid carrier is applied orally and swished and expectorated orswallowed. Pharmaceutically compatible binding agents, and/or adjuvantmaterials can be included as part of the composition. The tablets,pills, capsules, troches and the like can contain any of the followingingredients, or compounds of a similar nature: a binder such asmicrocrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth or gelatin; an excipient suchas starch or lactose, a disintegrating agent such as alginic acid,Primogel, or corn starch; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate orSterotes; a glidant such as colloidal silicon dioxide; a sweeteningagent such as sucrose or saccharin; or a flavoring agent such aspeppermint, methyl salicylate, or orange flavoring.

For administration by inhalation, the compounds are delivered in theform of an aerosol spray from pressured container or dispenser whichcontains a suitable propellant, e.g., a gas such as carbon dioxide, or anebulizer.

Systemic administration can also be by transmucosal or transdermalmeans. For transmucosal or transdermal administration, penetrantsappropriate to the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation.Such penetrants are generally known in the art, and include, forexample, for transmucosal administration, detergents, bile salts, andfusidic acid derivatives. Transmucosal administration can beaccomplished through the use of nasal sprays or suppositories. Fortransdermal administration, the active compounds are formulated intoointments, salves, gels, or creams as generally known in the art.

The compounds can also be prepared in the form of suppositories (e.g.,with conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter and otherglycerides) or retention enemas for rectal delivery.

In one embodiment, the active compounds are prepared with carriers thatwill protect the compound against rapid elimination from the body, suchas a controlled release formulation, including implants andmicroencapsulated delivery systems. Biodegradable, biocompatiblepolymers can be used, such as ethylene vinyl acetate, polyanhydrides,polyglycolic acid, collagen, polyorthoesters, and polylactic acid.Methods for preparation of such formulations will be apparent to thoseskilled in the art. The materials can also be obtained commercially.Liposomal suspensions (including liposomes targeted to infected cellswith monoclonal antibodies to viral antigens) can also be used aspharmaceutically acceptable carriers. These can be prepared according tomethods known to those skilled in the art, for example, as described inU.S. Pat. No. 4,522,811.

It is especially advantageous to formulate oral or parenteralcompositions in dosage unit form for ease of administration anduniformity of dosage. Dosage unit form as used herein refers tophysically discrete units suited as unitary dosages for the subject tobe treated; each unit containing a predetermined quantity of activecompound calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect inassociation with the required pharmaceutical carrier. The specificationfor the dosage unit forms of the invention are dictated by and directlydependent on the unique characteristics of the active compound and theparticular therapeutic effect to be achieved, and the limitationsinherent in the art of compounding such an active compound for thetreatment of individuals.

The pharmaceutical compositions can be included in a container, pack, ordispenser together with instructions for administration.

Methods of administering agents according to the present invention arenot limited to the conventional means such as injection or oralinfusion, but include more advanced and complex forms of energytransfer. For example, genetically engineered cells that carry andexpress energy modulation agents may be used. Cells from the host may betransfected with genetically engineered vectors that expressbioluminescent agents. Transfection may be accomplished via in situ genetherapy techniques such as injection of viral vectors or gene guns, ormay be performed ex vivo by removing a sample of the host's cells andthen returning to the host upon successful transfection.

Such transfected cells may be inserted or otherwise targeted at the sitewhere diseased cells are located. In this embodiment, the initiationenergy source may be a biochemical source as such ATP, in which case theinitiation energy source is considered to be directly implanted in thetransfected cell. Alternatively, a conventional micro-emitter devicecapable of acting as an initiation energy source may be transplanted atthe site of the diseased cells.

It will also be understood that the order of administering the differentagents is not particularly limited. Thus in some embodiments theactivatable pharmaceutical agent may be administered before the energymodulation agent, while in other embodiments the energy modulation agentmay be administered prior to the activatable pharmaceutical agent. Itwill be appreciated that different combinations of ordering may beadvantageously employed depending on factors such as the absorption rateof the agents, the localization and molecular trafficking properties ofthe agents, and other pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamicsconsiderations.

An advantage of the methods of the present invention is that byspecifically targeting cells affected by a cell proliferation disorder,such as rapidly dividing cells, and triggering a cellular change, suchas apoptosis, in these cells in situ, the immune system of the host maybe stimulated to have an immune response against the diseased cells.Once the host's own immune system is stimulated to have such a response,other diseased cells that are not treated by the activatablepharmaceutical agent may be recognized and be destroyed by the host'sown immune system. Such autovaccine effects may be obtained, forexample, in treatments using psoralen and UV-A.

In another aspect, the present invention also provides methods forproducing an autovaccine, including: (1) providing a population oftargeted cells; (2) treating the cells ex vivo with a psoralen or aderivative thereof; (3) activating the psoralen with a UV-A source toinduce apoptosis in the targeted cells; and (4) returning the apopticcells back to the host to induce an autovaccine effect against thetargeted cell, wherein the apoptic cells cause an autovaccine effect.

A further embodiment is the use of the present invention for thetreatment of skin cancer. In this example, a photoactivatable agent,preferably psoralen, is given to the patient, and is delivered to theskin lesion via the blood supply. An activation source having limitedpenetration ability (such as UV or IR) is shined directly on the skin—inthe case of psoralen, it would be a UV light, or an IR source. With theuse of an IR source, the irradiation would penetrate deeper and generateUV via two single photon events with psoralen.

In a further embodiment, methods according to this aspect of the presentinvention further include a step of separating the components of apopticcells into fractions and testing each fraction for autovaccine effect ina host. The components thus isolated and identified may then serve as aneffective autovaccine to stimulate the host's immune system to suppressgrowth of the targeted cells.

The present invention methods can be used alone or in combination withother therapies for treatment of cell proliferation disorders.Additionally, the present invention methods can be used, if desired, inconjunction with recent advances in chronomedicine, such as thatdetailed in Giacchetti et al, Journal of Clinical Oncology, Vol 24, No22 (August 1), 2006: pp. 3562-3569. In chronomedicine it has been foundthat cells suffering from certain types of disorders, such as cancer,respond better at certain times of the day than at others. Thus,chronomedicine could be used in conjunction with the present methods inorder to augment the effect of the treatments of the present invention.

In another aspect, the present invention further provides systems andkits for practicing the above described methods.

In one embodiment, a system in accordance with the present invention mayinclude: (1) an initiation energy source; (2) one or more energymodulation agents; and (3) one or more activatable pharmaceuticalagents.

In another embodiment, a system in accordance with the present inventionmay include an initiation energy source and one or more activatablepharmaceutical agents.

FIG. 3 illustrates a system according to one exemplary embodiment of thepresent invention. Referring to FIG. 3, an exemplary system according toone embodiment of the present invention may have an initiation energysource 1 directed at the subject 4. An activatable pharmaceutical agent2 and an energy modulation agent 3 are administered to the subject 4.The initiation energy source may additionally be controlled by acomputer system 5 that is capable of directing the delivery of theinitiation energy.

In preferred embodiments, the initiation energy source may be a linearaccelerator equipped with image guided computer-control capability todeliver a precisely calibrated beam of radiation to a pre-selectedcoordinate. One example of such linear accelerators is the SmartBeam1™IMRT (intensity modulated radiation therapy) system from Varian medicalsystems (Varian Medical Systems, Inc., Palo Alto, Calif.).

In other embodiments, endoscopic or laproscopic devices equipped withappropriate initiation energy emitter may be used as the initiationenergy source. In such systems, the initiation energy may be navigatedand positioned at the pre-selected coordinate to deliver the desiredamount of initiation energy to the site.

In further embodiments, dose calculation and robotic manipulationdevices may also be included in the system.

In yet another embodiment, there is also provided a computer implementedsystem for designing and selecting suitable combinations of initiationenergy source, energy transfer agent, and activatable pharmaceuticalagent, comprising:

a central processing unit (CPU) having a storage medium on which isprovided:

-   -   a database of excitable compounds;    -   a first computation module for identifying and designing an        excitable compound that is capable of binding with a target        cellular structure or component; and    -   a second computation module predicting the resonance absorption        energy of the excitable compound,

wherein the system, upon selection of a target cellular structure orcomponent, computes an excitable compound that is capable of bindingwith the target structure followed by a computation to predict theresonance absorption energy of the excitable compound.

FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary computer implemented system according tothis embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 4, anexemplary computer-implemented system according to one embodiment of thepresent invention may have a central processing unit (CPU) connected toa memory unit, configured such that the CPU is capable of processinguser inputs and selecting a combination of initiation source,activatable pharmaceutical agent, and energy transfer agent based on anenergy spectrum comparison for use in a method of the present invention.

FIG. 5 illustrates a computer system 1201 for implementing variousembodiments of the present invention. The computer system 1201 may beused as the controller to perform any or all of the functions of the CPUdescribed above. The computer system 1201 includes a bus 1202 or othercommunication mechanism for communicating information, and a processor1203 coupled with the bus 1202 for processing the information. Thecomputer system 1201 also includes a main memory 1204, such as a randomaccess memory (RAM) or other dynamic storage device (e.g., dynamic RAM(DRAM), static RAM (SRAM), and synchronous DRANI (SDRAM)), coupled tothe bus 1202 for storing information and instructions to be executed byprocessor 1203. In addition, the main memory 1204 may be used forstoring temporary variables or other intermediate information during theexecution of instructions by the processor 1203. The computer system1201 further includes a read only memory (ROM) 1205 or other staticstorage device (e.g., programmable ROM (PROM), erasable PROM (EPROM),and electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM)) coupled to the bus 1202 forstoring static information and instructions for the processor 1203.

The computer system 1201 also includes a disk controller 1206 coupled tothe bus 1202 to control one or more storage devices for storinginformation and instructions, such as a magnetic hard disk 1207, and aremovable media drive 1208 (e.g., floppy disk drive, read-only compactdisc drive, read/write compact disc drive, compact disc jukebox, tapedrive, and removable magneto-optical drive). The storage devices may beadded to the computer system 1201 using an appropriate device interface(e.g., small computer system interface (SCSI), integrated deviceelectronics (IDE), enhanced-IDE (E-IDE), direct memory access (DMA), orultra-DMA).

The computer system 1201 may also include special purpose logic devices(e.g., application specific integrated circuits (ASICs)) or configurablelogic devices (e.g., simple programmable logic devices (SPLDs), complexprogrammable logic devices (CPLDs), and field programmable gate arrays(FPGAs)).

The computer system 1201 may also include a display controller 1209coupled to the bus 1202 to control a display (not shown), such as acathode ray tube (CRT), for displaying information to a computer user.The computer system includes input devices, such as a keyboard (notshown) and a pointing device (not shown), for interacting with acomputer user and providing information to the processor 1203. Thepointing device, for example, may be a mouse, a trackball, or a pointingstick for communicating direction information and command selections tothe processor 1203 and for controlling cursor movement on the display.In addition, a printer may provide printed listings of data storedand/or generated by the computer system 1201.

The computer system 1201 performs a portion or all of the processingsteps of the invention (such as for example those described in relationto FIG. 5) in response to the processor 1203 executing one or moresequences of one or more instructions contained in a memory, such as themain memory 1204. Such instructions may be read into the main memory1204 from another computer readable medium, such as a hard disk 1207 ora removable media drive 1208. One or more processors in amulti-processing arrangement may also be employed to execute thesequences of instructions contained in main memory 1204. In alternativeembodiments, hard-wired circuitry may be used in place of or incombination with software instructions. Thus, embodiments are notlimited to any specific combination of hardware circuitry and software.

As stated above, the computer system 1201 includes at least one computerreadable medium or memory for holding instructions programmed accordingto the teachings of the invention and for containing data structures,tables, records, or other data described herein. Examples of computerreadable media are compact discs, hard disks, floppy disks, tape,magneto-optical disks, PROMs (EPROM, EEPROM, flash EPROM), DRAM, SRAM,SDRAM, or any other magnetic medium, compact discs (e.g., CD-ROM), orany other optical medium, punch cards, paper tape, or other physicalmedium with patterns of holes, a carrier wave (described below), or anyother medium from which a computer can read.

Stored on any one or on a combination of computer readable media, thepresent invention includes software for controlling the computer system1201, for driving a device or devices for implementing the invention,and for enabling the computer system 1201 to interact with a human user(e.g., print production personnel). Such software may include, but isnot limited to, device drivers, operating systems, development tools,and applications software. Such computer readable media further includesthe computer program product of the present invention for performing allor a portion (if processing is distributed) of the processing performedin implementing the invention.

The computer code devices of the present invention may be anyinterpretable or executable code mechanism, including but not limited toscripts, interpretable programs, dynamic link libraries (DLLs), Javaclasses, and complete executable programs. Moreover, parts of theprocessing of the present invention may be distributed for betterperformance, reliability, and/or cost.

The term “computer readable medium” as used herein refers to any mediumthat participates in providing instructions to the processor 1203 forexecution. A computer readable medium may take many forms, including butnot limited to, non-volatile media, volatile media, and transmissionmedia. Non-volatile media includes, for example, optical, magneticdisks, and magneto-optical disks, such as the hard disk 1207 or theremovable media drive 1208. Volatile media includes dynamic memory, suchas the main memory 1204. Transmission media includes coaxial cables,copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that make up the bus1202. Transmission media also may also take the form of acoustic orlight waves, such as those generated during radio wave and infrared datacommunications.

Various forms of computer readable media may be involved in carrying outone or more sequences of one or more instructions to processor 1203 forexecution. For example, the instructions may initially be carried on amagnetic disk of a remote computer. The remote computer can load theinstructions for implementing all or a portion of the present inventionremotely into a dynamic memory and send the instructions over atelephone line using a modem. A modem local to the computer system 1201may receive the data on the telephone line and use an infraredtransmitter to convert the data to an infrared signal. An infrareddetector coupled to the bus 1202 can receive the data carried in theinfrared signal and place the data on the bus 1202. The bus 1202 carriesthe data to the main memory 1204, from which the processor 1203retrieves and executes the instructions. The instructions received bythe main memory 1204 may optionally be stored on storage device 1207 or1208 either before or after execution by processor 1203.

The computer system 1201 also includes a communication interface 1213coupled to the bus 1202. The communication interface 1213 provides atwo-way data communication coupling to a network link 1214 that isconnected to, for example, a local area network (LAN) 1215, or toanother communications network 1216 such as the Internet. For example,the communication interface 1213 may be a network interface card toattach to any packet switched LAN. As another example, the communicationinterface 1213 may be an asymmetrical digital subscriber line (ADSL)card, an integrated services digital network (ISDN) card or a modem toprovide a data communication connection to a corresponding type ofcommunications line. Wireless links may also be implemented. In any suchimplementation, the communication interface 1213 sends and receiveselectrical, electromagnetic or optical signals that carry digital datastreams representing various types of information.

The network link 1214 typically provides data communication through oneor more networks to other data devices. For example, the network link1214 may provide a connection to another computer through a localnetwork 1215 (e.g., a LAN) or through equipment operated by a serviceprovider, which provides communication services through a communicationsnetwork 1216. The local network 1214 and the communications network 1216use, for example, electrical, electromagnetic, or optical signals thatcarry digital data streams, and the associated physical layer (e.g., CAT5 cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber, etc). The signals through thevarious networks and the signals on the network link 1214 and throughthe communication interface 1213, which carry the digital data to andfrom the computer system 1201 maybe implemented in baseband signals, orcarrier wave based signals. The baseband signals convey the digital dataas unmodulated electrical pulses that are descriptive of a stream ofdigital data bits, where the term “bits” is to be construed broadly tomean symbol, where each symbol conveys at least one or more informationbits. The digital data may also be used to modulate a carrier wave, suchas with amplitude, phase and/or frequency shift keyed signals that arepropagated over a conductive media, or transmitted as electromagneticwaves through a propagation medium. Thus, the digital data may be sentas unmodulated baseband data through a “wired” communication channeland/or sent within a predetermined frequency band, different thanbaseband, by modulating a carrier wave. The computer system 1201 cantransmit and receive data, including program code, through thenetwork(s) 1215 and 1216, the network link 1214, and the communicationinterface 1213. Moreover, the network link 1214 may provide a connectionthrough a LAN 1215 to a mobile device 1217 such as a personal digitalassistant (PDA) laptop computer, or cellular telephone.

The exemplary energy spectrum previously noted in FIG. 1 may also beused in this computer-implemented system.

The reagents and chemicals useful for methods and systems of the presentinvention may be packaged in kits to facilitate application of thepresent invention. In one exemplary embodiment, a kit including apsoralen, and fractionating containers for easy fractionation andisolation of autovaccines is contemplated. A further embodiment of kitwould comprise at least one activatable pharmaceutical agent capable ofcausing a predetermined cellular change, at least one energy modulationagent capable of activating the at least one activatable agent whenenergized, and containers suitable for storing the agents in stableform, and preferably further comprising instructions for administeringthe at least one activatable pharmaceutical agent and at least oneenergy modulation agent to a subject, and for applying an initiationenergy from an initiation energy source to activate the activatablepharmaceutical agent. The instructions could be in any desired form,including but not limited to, printed on a kit insert, printed on one ormore containers, as well as electronically stored instructions providedon an electronic storage medium, such as a computer readable storagemedium. Also optionally included is a software package on a computerreadable storage medium that permits the user to integrate theinformation and calculate a control dose, to calculate and controlintensity of the irradiation source.

Having generally described this invention, a further understanding canbe obtained by reference to certain specific examples which are providedherein for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to belimiting unless otherwise specified.

EXAMPLES Example 1

In a first example, Vitamin B12 is used as a stimulating energy sourcefor a photoactive agent overlapping its emission wavelength usingdipole-dipole resonance energy transfer.

Excitation Max. Emission Max. Endogenous Fluorophore (nm) (nm) VitaminB₁₂ 275 305

Vitamin B12 has an excitation maximum at about 275 nm and an emissionmaximum at 305 nm, as shown above and in Table 2. Table 4 shows UV andlight emission from gamma ray sources. In this example, ¹¹³ Sn and/or¹³⁷Cs are chelated with the Vitamin B12. The Vitamin B12 preferentiallyis absorbed by tumor cells. Thus, it is in close proximity and capableof activating 8-MOP, which is administered in advance as thephotoactivation molecules. The emission band of Vitamin B12 overlaps theexcitation band of 8-MOP; therefore, photo and resonance energy transferoccurs, when Vitamin B12 is in close proximity to 8-MOP. 8-MOP isactivated and binds to DNA of the tumor cells inducing an auto vaccineeffect in vivo.

TABLE 4 UV and Optical Emission from Ionizing Sources Energy lightintensity UV VIS NIR Source Emission (MeV) (cps) % % % ⁵⁵Fe Mn X-rays0.00589 125 (0.9) Rb XRF Rb X-rays 0.01339 125,321 (23) 99.62 0.37 0.01¹³³Ba Cs X-rays 0.03097 2,803 (3.9) 97.51 1.46 1.03 Ba XRF Ba X-rays0.03219 2,064 (7.3) 95.64 3.83 0.53 ¹⁵²Eu Sm X-rays 0.04012 3,052 (6.2)90.33 5.90 3.77 Tb XRF Tb X-rays 0.04447 37 (1.1) ²⁴¹Am γ 0.05954 1678(2.1) 98.03 1.91 0.06 ²⁰¹TI Hg X-rays 0.07082 1,830 (2.8) 95.73 3.830.44 ⁵⁷Co γ 0.122 626 (1.8) 96.01 1.76 2.23 ^(99m)Tc γ 0.141 468 (4.5)94.02 3.85 2.13 ¹⁴⁷Pm β 0.224 3,606 (3.9) 99.36 0.58 0.06 ⁴⁵Ca β 0.2522,333 (3.2) 95.76 4.20 0.04 ¹¹³Sn γ 0.393 91,105 (23) 96.95 2.21 0.84¹⁴¹Ce β 0.444 727 (0.9) 98.76 1.10 0.14 ²²Na γ 0.511 2,284 (3.5) 94.922.50 2.58 ¹³⁷Cs β 0.514 8,579 (7.0) 96.81 0.85 2.34 ¹³¹I β 0.607 234,079(5.0) 96.64 3.22 0.14 ^(110m)Ag γ 0.6577 48,393 (28) 88.07 4.36 7.57²⁰⁴TI β 0.763 84,984 (24) 96.60 2.96 0.44 ⁵⁹Fe γ 1.099 39,985 (16) 95.981.52 2.50 ⁶⁰Co γ 1.33 2,207 (3.4) 92.98 2.31 4.71 ⁸⁶Rb β 1.77 38,677(23) 73.56 9.82 16.62 ⁹⁰Y β 2.27 29,563 (19) 83.36 8.02 8.62 Sourcespresent as metallic solid Cu XRF Cu X-rays 0.00805 22 (0.8) Mo XRF MoX-rays 0.01748 27 (0.9) Ag XRF Ag X-rays 0.02216 30 (1.0) ⁵⁷Co γ 0.1226,343 (8.1) 88.18 5.71 6.11 ⁶⁰Co γ 1.33 30,123 (34)

Example 2

In this example, gold nanoparticles are chelated with the Vitamin B12complex. A suitable light source is used to stimulate the goldnanoparticles or Vitamin BI2 may be chelated with one of the UV emitterslisted in Table 4 in addition to the gold nanoparticles. The tumor cellspreferentially absorb the Vitamin B12 complexes, such that the activatedold nanoparticles are within 50 nanometers of 8-MOP and/or otherphotoactivatable molecules previously administered. Therefore, resonanceenergy transfer activates the photoactivatable molecules, such as 8-MOP,and the activated 8-MOP binds to DNA in tumor cells indusing apoptosisand autovaccine effects.

In a further example, the nanoparticles of gold are clusters of 5 goldatoms encapsulated by poly-amidoamine dendrimers. Thus, the goldnanoparticles emit UV in the correct band for activating 8-MOP and otherUV-activatable agents capable of exhibiting photophoresis and/orphotodynamic effects.

Cells undergoing rapid proliferation have been shown to have increaseduptake of thymidine and methionine. (See, for example, M. E. vanEijkeren et al., Acta Oncologica, 31, 539 (1992); K. Kobota et al., J.Nucl. Med., 32, 2118 (1991) and K. Higashi et al., J. Nucl. Med., 34,773(1993)). Since methylcobalamin is directly involved with methioninesynthesis and indirectly involved in the synthesis of thymidylate andDNA, it is not surprising that methylcobalamin as well asCobalt-57-cyanocobalamin have also been shown to have increased uptakein rapidly dividing tissue (for example, see, B. A. Cooper et al.,Nature, 191, 393 (1961); H. Flodh, Acta Radiol. Suppl., 284, 55 (1968);L. Bloomquist et al., Experientia, 25, 294 (1969)). Additionally, upregulation in the number of transcobalamin II receptors has beendemonstrated in several malignant cell lines during their acceleratedthymidine incorporation and DNA synthesis (see, J. Lindemans et al.,Exp. Cell. Res., 184, 449 (1989); T. Amagasaki et al., Blood, 26, 138(1990) and J. A. Begly et al., J. Cell Physiol. 156, 43 (1993). VitaminB12 is water soluble, has no known toxicity, and in excess is excretedby gloinerular filtration. In addition, the uptake of vitamin B12 couldpotentially be manipulated by the administration of nitrous oxide andother pharmacological agents (D. Swanson et al., Pharmaceuticals inMedical Imaging, MacMillan Pub. Co., NY (1 990) at pages 621 628).

A preferred embodiment of the present invention uses a psoralen compoundas the activatable pharmaceutical agent (most preferably 8-MOP or AMT),nanoparticles of gold having clusters of 5 gold atoms encapsulated bypoly-amidoamine dendrimers as the energy modulation agent, x-rays as theinitiation energy source, UV-A as the resultant energy emitted by theenergy modulation agent, which upon activation of the psoralen compoundresults in apoptosis in the target cells.

Obviously, additional modifications and variations of the presentinvention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is thereforeto be understood that within the scope of the appended claims, theinvention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically describedherein.

1. A method for treating cancer in a subject, comprising: (1)administering to the subject at least one activatable pharmaceuticalagent selected from 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) and4′-aminomethyl-4,5′,8-trimethylpsoralen (AMT); and (2) administering aninitiation energy source to the subject, wherein the initiation energysource produces an initiation energy that activates the activatablepharmaceutical agent in situ, thus treating the cancer.
 2. The methodaccording to claim 1, wherein said initiation energy source is achemical energy source.
 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein theat least one activated pharmaceutical agent causes an auto-vaccineeffect in the subject that reacts with a target cell to treat thecancer.
 4. The method according to claim 1, further comprising,administering to the subject at least one energy modulation agentselected from the group consisting of phosphorescent, fluorescent, andluminescent agents, that converts the initiation energy to an energythat activates the at least one activatable pharmaceutical agent.
 5. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the at least one activatable pharmaceuticalagent comprises an active agent contained within a photocage, whereinupon exposure to said initiation energy, the photocage disassociatesfrom the active agent, rendering the active agent available.
 6. Themethod of claim 2, wherein the chemical energy source is a memberselected from the group consisting of phosphorescent compounds,chemiluminescent compounds, bioluminescent compounds, and light emittingenzymes.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one activatedpharmaceutical agent causes apoptosis in a target cell to treat thecancer.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one activatablepharmaceutical agent is 8-MOP.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the atleast one activatable pharmaceutical agent is AMT.
 10. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the at least one activatable pharmaceutical agent iscoupled to a carrier that is capable of binding to a receptor site. 11.The method of claim 10, wherein the carrier is one selected from insulininterleukin, thymopoietin or transferrin.
 12. The method of claim 10,wherein the at least one activatable pharmaceutical agent is coupled tothe carrier by a covalent bond.
 13. The method of claim 10, wherein theat least one activatable pharmaceutical agent is coupled to the carrierby a non-covalent bond.
 14. The method of claim 10, wherein the receptorsite is one selected from nucleic acids of nucleated cells, antigenicsites on nucleated cells, or epitopes.
 15. The method of claim 1,wherein the at least one activatable pharmaceutical agent has affinityfor a target cell.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least oneactivatable pharmaceutical agent is capable of being preferentiallyabsorbed by a target cell.
 17. A kit for performing a cancer treatment,comprising: at least one activatable pharmaceutical agent selected from8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) and 4′-aminomethyl-4,5′,8-trimethylpsoralen(AMT); at least one energy modulation agent capable of activating the atleast one activatable pharmaceutical agent when energized, wherein theat least one energy modulation agent is selected from the groupconsisting of phosphorescent, fluorescent, and luminescent agents; andcontainers suitable for storing the agents in stable form.
 18. The kitof claim 17, further comprising instructions for administering the atleast one activatable pharmaceutical agent and at least one enemymodulation agent to a subject and for activating the at least oneactivatable pharmaceutical agent by application of X-ray energy.
 19. Thekit of claim 17, wherein the at least one activatable pharmaceuticalagent is 8-MOP.
 20. The kit of claim 17, wherein the at least oneactivatable pharmaceutical agent is AMT.
 21. The kit of claim 17,wherein the at least one energy modulation agent is one or more membersselected from a biocompatible fluorescing metal nanoparticle,fluorescing dye molecule, a biocompatible phosphorescent molecule, and alanthanide chelate capable of intense luminescence.
 22. The kit of claim17, wherein said at least one energy modulation agent is a single energymodulation agent, and is coupled to said at least one activatablepharmaceutical agent.
 23. The kit of claim 17, wherein the at least oneactivatable pharmaceutical agent is coupled to a carrier that is capableof binding to a receptor site.
 24. The kit of claim 23, wherein thecarrier is one selected from polypeptide, insulin, interleukin,thymopoietin or transferrin.
 25. The kit of claim 23, wherein the atleast one activatable pharmaceutical agent is coupled to the carrier bya covalent bond.
 26. The kit of claim 23, wherein the at least oneactivatable pharmaceutical agent is coupled to the carrier by anon-covalent bond.
 27. The kit of claim 23, wherein the receptor site isone selected from nucleic acids of nucleated cells, antigenic sites onnucleated cells, or epitopes.
 28. The kit of claim 17, wherein the atleast one activatable pharmaceutical agent has affinity for a targetcell.
 29. The kit of claim 17, wherein the at least one activatablepharmaceutical agent is capable of being preferentially absorbed by atarget cell.
 30. The kit of claim 17, wherein the at least one activatedpharmaceutical agent causes an auto-vaccine effect in the subject thatreacts with a target cell.
 31. The kit of claim 17, wherein the at leastone activatable pharmaceutical agent is a DNA intercalator or ahalogenated derivative thereof.
 32. The kit of claim 17, wherein the atleast one activatable pharmaceutical agent is activated by one or moresequential single photon absorption events.
 33. The kit of claim 17,wherein the at least one activatable pharmaceutical agent comprises anactive agent contained within a photocage, wherein upon exposure to saidinitiation energy source, the photocage disassociates from the activeagent, rendering the active agent available.